Trade routes & free-trade agreements

No bilateral FTA in force; Section 232/301 tariffs add 7.5-25% on many HS lines. Personal-import shipments under USD 800 (US Section 321) and under CNY 1,000 / RMB 1,000 (Chinese personal-import threshold) clear duty-free in their respective directions. Currency-control reporting and consumer-electronics certification (CE/CCC) apply to commercial volumes.

No bilateral FTA; India operates the AEO (Authorised Economic Operator) and SARAL personal-import schemes. Personal-import parcels under INR 50,000 (≈USD 600) attract concessional duty; above triggers full Customs Tariff Act treatment. Indian consumer-electronics imports require BIS certification for sale; tourist single-unit imports clear without BIS.

No bilateral or EU-wide FTA with China. EU-China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI) was signed 2020 but ratification suspended 2021. EU-origin shipments to China face MFN tariffs (3-25% depending on HS chapter) plus 13% VAT. Personal-import under CNY 1,000 clears duty-free under the personal-import threshold.

No US-UK FTA in force as of 2026; bilateral trade still covered by the WTO MFN tariff schedule. Mini-deals on whisky, beef, and digital trade have been signed but a comprehensive agreement remains in negotiation. Personal-import threshold US Section 321 USD 800 / UK GBP 135 / GBP 39 (gift) applies. UK 20% VAT collected at the point of sale via HMRC's Low-Value Goods scheme on parcels under GBP 135.

No bilateral FTA. EU IOSS framework applies; 19% German VAT collected on commercial parcels under EUR 150.

US Section 321 USD 800 threshold applies to inbound personal parcels. Section 232 tariffs apply to specific steel/auto categories.

US shipments enter the EU customs territory via France with French import VAT (TVA, 20% standard rate) and EU customs duty charged at clearance. Personal-import de minimis is €150 for duty (€0 for VAT under EU IOSS rules; sub-€150 ecommerce shipments must charge VAT at point of sale via the seller's IOSS registration). Major US-France retail lanes are pharmaceuticals, aerospace components, and electronics. Typical USPS / DHL parcel transit is 4-7 business days; customs holds add 1-3 days for inspection.

French exports to the US face Most-Favoured-Nation tariffs at HTS rates and Section 232 steel/aluminium and 301 china-route exclusions where applicable. US Section 321 de minimis is USD 800 per addressee per day for low-value shipments — French ecommerce vendors using DDP commonly clear ≤USD 800 parcels without duty. Wine and spirits shipments require COLA approval and TTB importer-of-record handling. Typical La Poste Colissimo or DHL transit is 5-9 business days.

US-to-Netherlands shipments enter the EU via Schiphol or Rotterdam. Dutch import VAT (BTW) is 21% standard, 9% reduced. EU customs duty applies above €150 personal-import de minimis. Major lanes include semiconductors (ASML), pharmaceuticals, and electronics. Average parcel transit: DHL Express 2-3 business days, USPS-via-PostNL 7-10 days. Bonded warehousing at Rotterdam supports EU-wide re-export with duty deferral.

Netherlands-US lane is dominated by chemicals, semiconductors (ASML), pharmaceuticals, and dairy. US de minimis USD 800 (Section 321) applies; commercial entries require HTS classification and US importer-of-record. Dutch exporters commonly use AEO-certified consolidators to consolidate ecommerce parcels through Schiphol. PostNL surface mail averages 9-15 business days; DHL Express 2-4 days.

US-to-Italy shipments clear Italian customs (ADM, Agenzia delle Dogane e dei Monopoli) with 22% IVA (Italian VAT) and EU duty above €150. Wine and food shipments require additional sanitary registration. Counterfeit and parallel-import enforcement is among the EU's strictest. DHL Express transit 3-4 days; USPS 8-12 days.

Italy-US exports concentrate in fashion (apparel, leather, footwear), wine, food, automotive components, and industrial machinery. US fashion imports face HTS rates 8-32% depending on textile composition; wine and spirits require TTB/COLA pre-approval. Italian Made-in-Italy origin claims must be substantiated by EUR.1 or self-declaration. Poste Italiane Posta Celere transit 6-10 business days.

Spain is the EU entry point for US shipments via Barajas (Madrid) or Barcelona ports. Spanish import VAT (IVA) 21%, EU duty above €150 personal-import. Wine, food, and pharmaceuticals dominate inbound retail. Major lane growth is in semiconductors and renewables equipment. DHL Express 3-5 days; Correos surface 9-14 days.

Spain-US exports concentrate in wine, olive oil, footwear (Valencia/Alicante), automotive parts, and ceramic tile. Spanish wine and olive-oil exports require origin certification (Denominación de Origen) for premium claims. US imports under USD 800 clear duty-free via Section 321. Correos and DHL eCommerce typical transit 7-12 business days.

Dublin US Preclearance for reverse-flow travelers; commercial parcels under EU IOSS.

US-to-Thailand shipments clear via Thai Customs at BKK or Laem Chabang with 7% VAT and Thai customs duty per the AHTN tariff schedule. Personal-import de minimis is THB 1,500. Thailand applies elevated scrutiny on vape products, CBD/cannabis derivatives, and certain pharmaceuticals. USPS Priority Express to Thailand averages 5-9 business days; DHL Express 3-5 days. Returning Thai nationals using TM6 declaration get a personal-effects allowance of THB 20,000.

Thailand-US exports concentrate in semiconductors, hard drives, automotive components, jewellery (silver, gemstones), and processed food. US imports under USD 800 clear Section 321 de minimis. Jewellery shipments may face 5-7% HTS duty and TIFA review. Thailand Post EMS typical US transit 7-10 business days.

US-Vietnam trade has grown dramatically post-2018 as China+1 manufacturing shifted to Vietnam. Vietnamese imports clear General Department of Customs (Tổng Cục Hải Quan) with 10% VAT and tariff per the AHTN schedule. Personal-import de minimis is VND 1,000,000 (≈USD 40). USPS to Vietnam transit 7-12 days; DHL 3-5 days.

Vietnam-US is now one of Asia's largest export lanes by value. Apparel/textiles, footwear, furniture, electronics (Samsung Vietnam), and seafood dominate. US Section 321 de minimis (USD 800) covers most ecommerce. Vietnamese exporters use Form A (GSP), now expired, or seek TPP/CPTPP origin; many commercial shipments clear at MFN rates. Vietnam Post EMS transit to US 7-10 business days.

US-Philippines parcel and commercial flows clear Philippine Bureau of Customs at NAIA or Manila Port with 12% VAT and ASEAN-Harmonised Tariff Nomenclature duty. Personal-import de minimis is PHP 10,000 (≈USD 175). The Philippines is the world's top remittance recipient per capita; courier parcels of personal effects ('balikbayan box') receive duty-free treatment up to PHP 150,000 per family per year if shipped via accredited consolidators. USPS to Manila averages 7-12 business days.

US-Indonesia shipments clear Indonesian Customs (Bea Cukai) at Soekarno-Hatta or Tanjung Priok with 11% VAT and BTKI-tariff customs duty. Personal-import de minimis is USD 3 per consignment (one of the lowest globally) — almost all incoming parcels attract duty. Halal certification (BPJPH) is mandatory for food, cosmetics, and consumer goods sold commercially. DHL Express transit 3-5 days; USPS 7-14 days.

China-Germany via Hamburg, Bremerhaven, or rail (China-Europe Express via Duisburg) is one of the world's busiest container lanes. EU import VAT (19% German MwSt) and CN8 tariff at EU customs entry. EU CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism) reporting applies to iron/steel, aluminium, cement, fertilisers, electricity, and hydrogen since 2023; full carbon-price obligations phase in from 2026. Sea-freight transit Shanghai-Hamburg 30-40 days; China-Europe rail 18-22 days; air freight 4-7 days.

China-France shipments enter the EU customs union via Le Havre, Marseille, or Charles de Gaulle. French TVA 20% and EU duty per the CN8 schedule. Counterfeit-goods enforcement is among the EU's strictest, with high inspection rates on apparel, leather goods, and electronics. Major lanes: textiles, electronics, machinery. CMA CGM-led ocean transit 30-35 days; air freight 5-7 days.

China-Netherlands via Rotterdam is Europe's largest container gateway. Dutch BTW 21% and EU CN8 tariff apply. Rotterdam's bonded-warehouse network supports EU-wide re-export with duty deferral, making it the preferred entry point for ecommerce consolidation (Cainiao, J&T, SF International). Ocean transit Shanghai-Rotterdam 30-35 days; air freight 5-7 days; China-Europe rail to Duisburg+truck 20-25 days.

China-Italy ocean freight via Genova, La Spezia, or Trieste; air via Malpensa or Fiumicino. Italian IVA 22% and EU CN8 tariff apply. Italian customs (ADM) applies high-scrutiny inspection on textiles and leather goods for both undervaluation and origin-marking compliance. China-Italy 'Belt and Road' rail to Mortara/Pavia operates with 18-22 day transit. Air freight 5-8 days.

China-Spain shipments enter via Barcelona, Valencia, or Algeciras with Spanish IVA 21% and EU CN8 tariff. Yiwu-Madrid rail freight (the world's longest scheduled rail route at 13,000 km) takes 20-22 days. Air freight 6-9 days. Common lanes: textiles, footwear-machinery, consumer electronics, solar PV.

AfCFTA

South Africa-Kenya bilateral trade is supported by SADC-EAC-COMESA Tripartite FTA (effective 2024) and AfCFTA. South African exports: machinery, vehicles, chemicals, processed food. Kenyan exports: tea, coffee, fresh-cut flowers, fish. Kenya import VAT 16% plus IDF (Import Declaration Fee 2%) and RDL (Railway Development Levy 1.5%). Durban-Mombasa ocean 10-14 days; air freight via Johannesburg-Nairobi 3-5 hours plus customs. AfCFTA preferential rates require AfCFTA-CO certificate.

AfCFTA

Kenya-Nigeria trade is the largest intra-African air-cargo lane in East-West Africa. Both are AfCFTA founding members. Kenyan exports: tea, fresh-cut flowers, processed food, pharmaceuticals (Cosmos), tobacco. Nigerian exports: oil products, cocoa, leather, fertilisers. Nigeria VAT 7.5%, ECOWAS Common External Tariff (5% baseline, 20% peak), plus PAAR pre-arrival assessment requirement. Air freight is the only practical mode (Kenya Airways KQ + Nigerian Airways routes); 6-8 hours plus customs. Maritime via Mombasa-Lagos rare due to lack of direct services.

ANZCERTA (Closer Economic Relations)

CER is the longest-running FTA in force and provides tariff-free trade on originating goods. Both sides apply strict biosecurity screening (MPI / DAFF) regardless of origin — declare all food, plant and animal material on arrival.

ChAFTA (China-Australia FTA) + RCEP

ChAFTA in force since 2015; RCEP adds a second preferential path from 2022. Most tariffs on originating goods are now at 0%. Personal e-commerce parcels under AUD 1,000 attract GST via the low-value-goods regime but no duty on ChAFTA-qualifying goods.

China-GCC negotiations

China-UAE is the largest bilateral lane for non-oil trade in the Middle East. UAE 5% VAT and customs duty (typically 5% MFN) apply; Jebel Ali Free Zone supports re-export with duty deferral. Major lanes: electronics, textiles, machinery, gold, jewellery. Ocean transit Shanghai-Jebel Ali 17-21 days; air freight 4-6 days; sea-air via Mumbai 12-15 days.

China-GCC negotiations

China-Saudi Arabia trade focuses on petrochemical feedstocks (in), electronics, machinery, textiles, and household goods (out). Saudi 15% VAT applies plus GCC Common External Tariff (typically 5% MFN, higher on protected sectors). SASO/SABER conformity certification is mandatory for most consumer goods before customs release. Ocean transit Shanghai-Jeddah 18-22 days; Jubail/Dammam 20-25 days.

China-GCC negotiations

China-Qatar trade is dominated by petrochemical and construction materials inbound to Qatar and consumer goods, machinery, and electronics outbound from China. Qatar 5% VAT (effective 2027) and GCC Common External Tariff (5% MFN baseline) apply. Hamad Port (Doha) and Hamad International Airport handle most cargo. Ocean transit Shanghai-Hamad 18-22 days; air 5-7 days. Pre-shipment inspection (PSI) requirements vary by product category.

India-UAE CEPA

India-UAE Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA, 2022) created one of the largest preferential trade bilaterals. UAE is India's third-largest trading partner and India is among the UAE's top three. Major Indian exports: gems and jewellery, refined petroleum, electronics, food products, machinery. Major UAE exports: crude petroleum, polymers, aluminium, gold. India IGST 5-28%, UAE 5% VAT. Mumbai-Jebel Ali ocean 4-6 days; air 3-4 hours plus customs. CEPA Form I-UAE-CEPA origin certification enables preferential rates.

India-UAE CEPA

CEPA preferential; India 20g/40g men/women duty-free gold limits apply on personal-import.

JAEPA + CPTPP

Japan-Australia EPA (2015) is progressively eliminating tariffs; CPTPP provides an additional path. Preferential rates require a self-declaration of origin. Australia's biosecurity rules apply regardless of FTA status.

Japan-India CEPA

Japan-India trade operates under CEPA (Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, 2011) and RCEP. India IGST 5/12/18/28% depending on HS classification, plus BCD (Basic Customs Duty) per ITC-HS. Major Japanese exports: industrial machinery, auto parts, electronics, chemicals. Major Indian exports: pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, textiles, marine products. Ocean transit Yokohama-Nhava Sheva 14-18 days; air freight 6-9 days. CEPA Form JIN origin certification enables preferential rates.

JTEPA

Japan-Thailand trade is anchored by JTEPA (Japan-Thailand Economic Partnership Agreement, 2007) and RCEP. Japanese exports concentrate in auto parts, machinery, electronics, and steel; Thai exports in agricultural products, processed food, jewellery, and electronics. Thai VAT 7%, MFN tariff per AHTN. JAL/ANA air cargo Tokyo-Bangkok 1-2 day transit; ocean 7-9 days. JTEPA Form JTH origin certification required for preferential rates.

Korea-Vietnam FTA + RCEP

Korea-Vietnam EPA (VKFTA, 2015) and RCEP provide the legal framework. Korea is among Vietnam's top investors; Samsung, LG, and Hyundai operate major Vietnamese manufacturing. Outbound from Korea: electronics, machinery, plastics, steel. Inbound from Vietnam: apparel, seafood, footwear, furniture, agricultural products. Busan-Ho Chi Minh ocean 4-6 days; air freight 4-6 hours plus customs. VK-Form C/O required for preferential rates.

KORUS (US-Korea FTA)

KORUS in force since 2012, amended 2018; covers virtually all bilateral trade in goods with full tariff elimination on industrial products. Korean cosmetics, K-beauty, and consumer electronics dominate the personal-import volumes. Certificate of Origin Form KORUS-1 required for preferential duty.

MERCOSUR

Brazil-Argentina is the core Mercosur lane (Brazil 86% / Argentina 14% of Mercosur GDP). Mercosur Common External Tariff (TEC) applies to extra-Mercosur trade; intra-Mercosur trade is duty-free with Form MERCOSUR/CMC certificate of origin. Argentine 21% IVA at import. Major lanes: automobiles and auto parts (substantial cross-border integration), agricultural machinery, food. Ocean São Paulo (Santos)-Buenos Aires 3-5 days; air 3-4 hours. Customs delays at the Foz do Iguaçu / Puerto Iguazú land border are common.

MERCOSUR

Argentina-Brazil intra-Mercosur trade is duty-free with Form MERCOSUR/CMC. Argentine exports to Brazil: agricultural commodities (wheat, corn, soya), automobiles and auto parts, food products. Brazilian VAT structure (ICMS + IPI + PIS/COFINS) applies at import depending on state of entry. Argentina's Sistema de Importaciones (SIRA, formerly SIMI) requires pre-import approval for most goods. Ocean Buenos Aires-Santos 3-5 days; truck via Paso de los Libres-Uruguaiana 1-3 days with paperwork.

RCEP

Korea-Indonesia trade operates under IK-CEPA (Indonesia-Korea CEPA, 2020) and RCEP. Korean exports concentrate in petrochemicals, steel, machinery, automobiles, and electronics. Indonesian exports focus on natural rubber, palm oil, coal, base metals, and apparel. Indonesia VAT 11%, BTKI tariff at MFN or preferential rates with IK-CEPA Form C/O. Busan-Tanjung Priok ocean 5-7 days; air 7-9 hours.

SAFTA (Singapore-Australia FTA) + CPTPP

Overlapping SAFTA (in force since 2003) and CPTPP (2018) both provide preferential duty. Australia's GST applies to imports via the low-value-goods regime (AUD 1,000 threshold). Declaration of origin on the commercial invoice is the common compliance path.

UK-Australia FTA (A-UKFTA)

A-UKFTA entered into force 2023-05-31. Wine tariffs eliminated on originating goods; phased elimination of tariffs on many agricultural products over 10-15 years. Certificate of Origin or importer's declaration required for preference.

UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA)

Post-Brexit TCA applies from 2021-01-01. 0% tariff available for UK/EU-origin goods accompanied by a Statement on Origin. VAT is payable on import into Germany at 19% standard rate. IOSS / OSS schemes handle most consumer e-commerce.

UK-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA)

UK-Japan CEPA in force since January 2021; the UK's first major post-Brexit trade deal, providing tariff elimination on most industrial goods and preferential access for British food + drink exports. Whisky, gin, and luxury watches dominate the eastbound shipments. UK Origin Declaration on the commercial invoice is sufficient for shipments under GBP 5,500.

US-Japan Trade Agreement (Phase 1)

US-Japan Phase 1 covers ~5% of bilateral trade in goods (mostly agricultural and digital trade); a more comprehensive FTA remains in negotiation. Personal-import shipments under USD 800 (US Section 321) and JPY 10,000 (Japan personal-import limit) clear duty-free in their respective directions.

USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement)

USMCA replaced NAFTA on 2020-07-01. Originating goods qualify for 0% MFN duty provided the USMCA Certificate of Origin / origin declaration is included. De minimis on courier-imports into Canada is CAD 20 for duty (CAD 40 for taxes).

USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement)

USMCA preferential duty requires a Certificate of Origin at the commercial entry. Mexico's SAT applies VAT (IVA, 16%) to all commercial imports regardless of FTA status. Personal de minimis is USD 50 at the northern land border.

USMCA (US-Mexico-Canada Agreement)

USMCA in force since July 2020, replacing NAFTA. Personal-import parcels via Mexico-US courier clear under Section 321 USD 800 threshold. USMCA Certificate of Origin (no specific form required, just data points listed in Article 5.2) needed for preferential treatment on commercial volumes. Pharmaceutical and food-product exports benefit most from duty elimination.

VJEPA + CPTPP + RCEP

Japan-Vietnam trade has grown under VJEPA (Vietnam-Japan EPA, 2009), AJCEP, CPTPP, and RCEP. Major Japanese exports: auto components, machinery, steel, electronics. Vietnamese exports: apparel, footwear, seafood, agricultural products. Vietnam Customs VAT 10%, AHTN-rate tariff. Form VJ or RCEP origin documentation enables preferential rates. Yokohama-Ho Chi Minh ocean transit 5-7 days; air 4-6 hours plus customs.